Γραμματικές Δυσκολίες - Grammar Roadblocks

^©Isidoros Parlamas • mind@horistics.com
Past Simple ή Present Perfect;

Το συγκεκριμένο ερώτημα αποτελεί ένα διαχρονικό γραμματικό πρόβλημα για μαθητές τόσο της αγγλικής όσο και άλλων ευρωπαϊκών γλωσσών, και κανένα κριτήριο δεν φαίνεται να λειτουργεί. Όσα έχουν προταθεί σε χιλιάδες βιβλία γραμματικής έχουν αποδειχθεί αόριστα και τελικά ανεπαρκή για να αντιμετωπίσουν το πρόβλημα διεξοδικά. Γιατί; Ο λόγος είναι η ημιμάθεια.

Αλλά εδώ είναι τα καλά νέα: το ακόλουθο κριτήριο λειτουργεί χωρίς εξαίρεση:

Πρώτα, είναι απαραίτητο να κατανοήσετε τα συμφραζόμενα.

1. Αν η στιγμή της εκφοράς του λόγου συμπεριλαμβάνεται, χρησιμοποιήστε present perfect simple.


2. Αν η στιγμή της εκφοράς του λόγου συμπεριλαμβάνεται και τα δρώμενα είναι ακόμη εν εξελίξει, χρησιμοποιήστε present perfect continuous.


3. Αν η στιγμή της εκφοράς του λόγου δεν συμπεριλαμβάνεται, χρησιμοποιήστε past simple.

Αυτό είναι όλο.

Παραδείγματα:

1. Hello, Mark. How long† did you live/have you lived/have you been living in Copenhagen?
2. I’m exhausted. I did/have done/have been doing housework all morning.
3. We met in 2010. We knew*/have known/have been knowing each other for fifteen years.
4. It stopped raining an hour ago. It rained/has rained/has been raining for three hours.
5. She looks tired. Did she study/has she studied/has she been studying?
6. When I was younger, I played/have played/have been playing the violin every day.
7. Sorry I’m late. Did you wait/have you waited/have you been waiting long?
8. This is the best book I read/have (ever) read/have been reading.
9. They aren’t home. They went/have gone/have been going to Paris.
10. I’m covered in paint because I painted/have painted/have been painting the ceiling.
11. We’re not hungry. We ate/have eaten/have been eating already.
12. He looks frustrated. Did he try/has he tried/has he been trying to fix the computer?
13. I met her last week. I saw/have seen/have been seeing her at the conference.
14. They’re still building the bridge. They built/have built/have been building it for two years.
15. She isn’t here. She left/has left/has been leaving the office.

* Στα αγγλικά, τα ακούσια ρήματα δεν εμφανίζονται σε διαρκείς χρόνους· to know είναι ένα από αυτά. Ονομάζονται ακούσια επειδή δεν εμπλέκεται η βούληση. Τα ακούσια ρήματα ανήκουν σε μία από τις ακόλουθες κατηγορίες:

1. Νοητικά (γνωστικές ή ψυχολογικές καταστάσεις)→ know, believe, understand, remember, think (όταν σημαίνει νομίζω—νομίζω: ακούσιο • σκέπτομαι: εκούσιο)
2. Κτητικά (κατοχή, σχέση, συσχέτιση)→ have, own, belong, contain, consist
3. Αισθητηριακά / Αντιληπτικά Τα ρήματα αυτά περιγράφουν αντίληψη και όχι εκούσια πράξη:→ see, hear, smell, taste, feel (μόνο όταν το νόημα είναι ακούσιο)

† How long did you live in Copenhagen? (Εννοείται ότι δεν ζείτε πλέον στην Κοπεγχάγη.)
† How long have you lived in Copenhagen? (Εννοείται συνολικά, από τότε που γεννηθήκατε μέχρι σήμερα. Μπορεί να ζείτε ή να μη ζείτε ακόμη στην Κοπεγχάγη.)
† How long have you been living in Copenhage? (Εννοείται ότι επί του παρόντος ζείτε στην Κοπεγχάγη. Η ερώτηση αφορά μόνο αυτή την πιο πρόσφατη περίοδο.)

Παρόλο που μπορεί να υπάρχουν κάποιες εξαιρέσεις, μπορείτε με ασφάλεια να εφαρμόσετε αυτό το κριτήριο και σε άλλες ευρωπαϊκές γλώσσες, όπως τα δανικά, τα γερμανικά, τα ελληνικά, τα ισπανικά, τα γαλλικά και πιθανότατα και σε άλλες.

^©Isidoros Parlamas • mind@horistics.com
Past Simple ou Present Perfect?

Cela a constitué un problème grammatical persistant pour les étudiants d’anglais ainsi que d’autres langues européennes, et aucun critère ne semble fonctionner. Ceux qui sont proposés dans des milliers de livres de grammaire se sont révélés trop vagues et finalement inadéquats pour résoudre le problème de manière décisive. Pourquoi ? La raison en est le sciolisme.

Mais voici la bonne nouvelle : le critère suivant fonctionne sans exception :

Réfléchissez au contexte en question.

1. Si le moment de l’énonciation est inclus, utilisez le present perfect simple.


2. Si le moment de l’énonciation est inclus et que l’action est encore en cours, utilisez le present perfect continuous.


3. Si le moment de l’énonciation n’est pas inclus, utilisez le past simple.

C’est tout.

Exemples :

1. Hello, Mark. How long† did you live/have you lived/have you been living in Copenhagen?
2. I’m exhausted. I did/have done/have been doing housework all morning.
3. We met in 2010. We knew*/have known/have been knowing each other for fifteen years.
4. It stopped raining an hour ago. It rained/has rained/has been raining for three hours.
5. She looks tired. Did she study/has she studied/has she been studying?
6. When I was younger, I played/have played/have been playing the violin every day.
7. Sorry I’m late. Did you wait/have you waited/have you been waiting long?
8. This is the best book I read/have (ever) read/have been reading.
9. They aren’t home. They went/have gone/have been going to Paris.
10. I’m covered in paint because I painted/have painted/have been painting the ceiling.
11. We’re not hungry. We ate/have eaten/have been eating already.
12. He looks frustrated. Did he try/has he tried/has he been trying to fix the computer?
13. I met her last week. I saw/have seen/have been seeing her at the conference.
14. They’re still building the bridge. They built/have built/have been building it for two years.
15. She isn’t here. She left/has left/has been leaving the office.

* En anglais, les verbes involontaires ne s’emploient pas aux temps continus ; to know en est un exemple. Ils sont appelés involontaires parce qu’ils n’impliquent pas de volonté. Les verbes involontaires appartiennent à l’une des catégories suivantes :

1. Mentaux (états cognitifs ou psychologiques) → know, believe, understand, remember, think (au sens statif)
2. Possessifs / relationnels (possession, appartenance, relation) → have, own, belong, contain, consist
3. Perceptifs / sensoriels Ces verbes décrivent la perception plutôt qu’une action délibérée : → see, hear, smell, taste, feel (au sens statif)

† How long did you live in Copenhagen? (il est entendu que vous ne vivez plus à Copenhague.)
† How long have you lived in Copenhagen? (il est entendu jusqu’à aujourd’hui. Vous vivez peut-être encore à Copenhague, ou peut-être pas.)
† How long have you been living in Copenhage? (il est entendu que vous vivez actuellement à Copenhague et que la question ne concerne que cette période récente.)

Bien qu’il puisse y avoir quelques exceptions, vous pouvez appliquer ce critère en toute sécurité à d’autres langues européennes telles que le danois, l’allemand, le grec, l’espagnol, le français, et très probablement à d’autres encore.

^©Isidoros Parlamas • mind@horistics.com
Past Simple eller Present Perfect?

Det har været et vedvarende grammatisk problem for studerende i både engelsk og andre europæiske sprog, og intet kriterium synes at fungere. De kriterier, der er blevet fremsat i tusindvis af grammatikbøger, har vist sig at være for vage og i sidste ende utilstrækkelige til at løse problemet afgørende. Hvorfor? Årsagen er sciolisme.

Men her er den gode nyhed: Det følgende kriterium fungerer uden undtagelse:

Tænk på den konkrete sammenhæng.

1. Hvis taletidspunktet er inkluderet, brug present perfect simple.


2. Hvis taletidspunktet er inkluderet, og handlingen stadig er i gang, brug present perfect continuous.


3. Hvis taletidspunktet ikke er inkluderet, brug past simple.

Det er alt.

Eksempler:

1. Hello, Mark. How long† did you live/have you lived/have you been living in Copenhagen?
2. I’m exhausted. I did/have done/have been doing housework all morning.
3. We met in 2010. We knew*/have known/have been knowing each other for fifteen years.
4. It stopped raining an hour ago. It rained/has rained/has been raining for three hours.
5. She looks tired. Did she study/has she studied/has she been studying?
6. When I was younger, I played/have played/have been playing the violin every day.
7. Sorry I’m late. Did you wait/have you waited/have you been waiting long?
8. This is the best book I read/have (ever) read/have been reading.
9. They aren’t home. They went/have gone/have been going to Paris.
10. I’m covered in paint because I painted/have painted/have been painting the ceiling.
11. We’re not hungry. We ate/have eaten/have been eating already.
12. He looks frustrated. Did he try/has he tried/has he been trying to fix the computer?
13. I met her last week. I saw/have seen/have been seeing her at the conference.
14. They’re still building the bridge. They built/have built/have been building it for two years.
15. She isn’t here. She left/has left/has been leaving the office.

* På engelsk forekommer involuntære verber ikke i de kontinuerte tider; to know er et af dem. De kaldes involuntære, fordi de ikke indebærer vilje. Involuntære verber tilhører en af følgende kategorier:

1. Mentale (kognitive eller psykologiske tilstande) → know, believe, understand, remember, think (i involuntær betydning)
2. Possessive / relationelle (besiddelse, tilhørsforhold, relation) → have, own, belong, contain, consist
3. Perceptive / sensoriske Disse verber beskriver perception snarere end bevidst handling: → see, hear, smell, taste, feel (i involuntær betydning)

† How long did you live in Copenhagen? (det er underforstået, at du ikke længere bor i København.)
† How long have you lived in Copenhagen? (det er underforstået frem til i dag. Du bor måske stadig i København – eller måske ikke.)
† How long have you been living in Copenhage? (det er underforstået, at du bor i København nu, og at spørgsmålet kun vedrører denne seneste periode.)

Selv om der kan være enkelte undtagelser, kan du med sikkerhed anvende dette kriterium på andre europæiske sprog såsom dansk, tysk, græsk, spansk, fransk og sandsynligvis også flere andre.

^©Isidoros Parlamas • mind@horistics.com
Past Simple or Present Perfect?

It has been a persistent grammar problem for students of both English and other European languages, and no criterion seems to work. Those offered in thousands of grammar books have proven too vague and ultimately inadequate to address the problem decisively. Why? The reason is sciolism.

But here is the good news: the following criterion does work without exception:

Think of the context at hand.

1. If the moment of speaking is included, use the present perfect simple.


2. If the moment of speaking is included and the action is still ongoing, use the present perfect continuous.


3. If the moment of speaking is not included, use the past simple.

That is all.

Examples:

1. Hello, Mark. How long† did you live/have you lived/have you been living in Copenhagen?
2. I’m exhausted. I did/have done/have been doing housework all morning.
3. We met in 2010. We knew*/have known/have been knowing each other for fifteen years.
4. It stopped raining an hour ago. It rained/has rained/has been raining for three hours.
5. She looks tired. Did she study/has she studied/has she been studying?
6. When I was younger, I played/have played/have been playing the violin every day.
7. Sorry I’m late. Did you wait/have you waited/have you been waiting long?
8. This is the best book I read/have (ever) read/have been reading.
9. They aren’t home. They went/have gone/have been going to Paris.
10. I’m covered in paint because I painted/have painted/have been painting the ceiling.
11. We’re not hungry. We ate/have eaten/have been eating already.
12. He looks frustrated. Did he try/has he tried/has he been trying to fix the computer?
13. I met her last week. I saw/have seen/have been seeing her at the conference.
14. They’re still building the bridge. They built/have built/have been building it for two years.
15. She isn’t here. She left/has left/has been leaving the office.

* In English, involuntary verbs do not occur in continuous tenses; to know is one of them. They are called involuntary because they do not involve volition. Involuntary verbs belong to one of the following categories:

1. Mental(cognitive or psychological states)→ know, believe, understand, remember, think (in the stative sense)
2. Possessive / Relational (possession, belonging, relation)→ have, own, belong, contain, consist
3. Perceptive / Sensory These verbs describe perception rather than deliberate action:→ see, hear, smell, taste, feel (in the stative sense)

† How long did you live in Copenhagen? (it is understood, you do not live in Copenhagen any longer.)
† How long have you lived in Copenhagen? (it is understood to this day. You may or you may not be still living in Copenhagen.)
† How long have you been living in Copenhagen? (it is understood you are currently living in Copenhagen and the question pertains only to this latest stint.)

Even though there may be a handful of exceptions, you can safely apply this criterion to other European languages such as Danish, German, Greek, Spanish, French, and most probably others.

^©Isidoros Parlamas • mind@horistics.com
¿Pretérito indefinido o presente perfecto?

Ha sido un problema gramatical persistente para los estudiantes tanto de inglés como de otras lenguas europeas, y ningún criterio parece funcionar. Los que se han propuesto en miles de libros de gramática han resultado demasiado vagos y, en última instancia, inadecuados para abordar el problema de manera decisiva. ¿Por qué? La razón es el sciolismo.

Pero aquí está la buena noticia: el siguiente criterio sí funciona sin excepción:

Piense en el contexto en cuestión.

1. Si el momento de habla está incluido, use el present perfect simple.


2. Si el momento de habla está incluido y la acción aún está en curso, use el present perfect continuous.


3. Si el momento de habla no está incluido, use el past simple.

Eso es todo.

Ejemplos:

1. Hello, Mark. How long† did you live/have you lived/have you been living in Copenhagen?
2. I’m exhausted. I did/have done/have been doing housework all morning.
3. We met in 2010. We knew*/have known/have been knowing each other for fifteen years.
4. It stopped raining an hour ago. It rained/has rained/has been raining for three hours.
5. She looks tired. Did she study/has she studied/has she been studying?
6. When I was younger, I played/have played/have been playing the violin every day.
7. Sorry I’m late. Did you wait/have you waited/have you been waiting long?
8. This is the best book I read/have (ever) read/have been reading.
9. They aren’t home. They went/have gone/have been going to Paris.
10. I’m covered in paint because I painted/have painted/have been painting the ceiling.
11. We’re not hungry. We ate/have eaten/have been eating already.
12. He looks frustrated. Did he try/has he tried/has he been trying to fix the computer?
13. I met her last week. I saw/have seen/have been seeing her at the conference.
14. They’re still building the bridge. They built/have built/have been building it for two years.
15. She isn’t here. She left/has left/has been leaving the office.

* En inglés, los verbos involuntarios no aparecen en los tiempos continuos; to know es uno de ellos. Se denominan involuntarios porque no implican voluntad. Los verbos involuntarios pertenecen a una de las siguientes categorías:

1. Mentales (estados cognitivos o psicológicos) → know, believe, understand, remember, think=opinar (en sentido involuntario)
2. Posesivos / relacionales (posesión, pertenencia, relación) → have, own, belong, contain, consist
3. Perceptivos / sensoriales Estos verbos describen la percepción más que una acción deliberada: → see, hear, smell, taste, feel (en sentido involuntario)

† How long did you live in Copenhagen? (se entiende que ya no vives en Copenhague.)
† How long have you lived in Copenhagen? (se entiende hasta el día de hoy. Puede que todavía vivas en Copenhague, o puede que no.)
† How long have you been living in Copenhage? (se entiende que actualmente vives en Copenhague y que la pregunta se refiere únicamente a este período más reciente.)

Aunque pueda haber un puñado de excepciones, se puede aplicar con seguridad este criterio a otras lenguas europeas como el danés, el alemán, el griego, el español, el francés y muy probablemente a otras más.

^©Isidoros Parlamas • mind@horistics.com
Past Simple czy Present Perfect?

Jest to uporczywy problem gramatyczny dla uczniów zarówno języka angielskiego, jak i innych języków europejskich, i żadne kryterium nie wydaje się działać. Te, które zaproponowano w tysiącach podręczników gramatyki, okazały się zbyt ogólnikowe i ostatecznie niewystarczające, by rozstrzygnąć problem w sposób zdecydowany. Dlaczego? Powodem jest sciolizm.

Ale oto dobra wiadomość: następujące kryterium działa bez wyjątku:

Pomyśl o danym kontekście.

1. Jeśli moment mówienia jest włączony, użyj present perfect simple.


2. Jeśli moment mówienia jest włączony, a czynność nadal jest w toku, użyj present perfect continuous.


3. Jeśli moment mówienia nie jest włączony, użyj past simple.

To wszystko.

Przykłady:

1. Hello, Mark. How long† did you live/have you lived/have you been living in Copenhagen?
2. I’m exhausted. I did/have done/have been doing housework all morning.
3. We met in 2010. We knew*/have known/have been knowing each other for fifteen years.
4. It stopped raining an hour ago. It rained/has rained/has been raining for three hours.
5. She looks tired. Did she study/has she studied/has she been studying?
6. When I was younger, I played/have played/have been playing the violin every day.
7. Sorry I’m late. Did you wait/have you waited/have you been waiting long?
8. This is the best book I read/have (ever) read/have been reading.
9. They aren’t home. They went/have gone/have been going to Paris.
10. I’m covered in paint because I painted/have painted/have been painting the ceiling.
11. We’re not hungry. We ate/have eaten/have been eating already.
12. He looks frustrated. Did he try/has he tried/has he been trying to fix the computer?
13. I met her last week. I saw/have seen/have been seeing her at the conference.
14. They’re still building the bridge. They built/have built/have been building it for two years.
15. She isn’t here. She left/has left/has been leaving the office.

* W języku angielskim czasowniki mimowolne nie występują w czasach ciągłych; to know jest jednym z nich. Nazywa się je mimowolnymi, ponieważ nie wiążą się z wolą. Czasowniki mimowolne należą do jednej z następujących kategorii:

1. Mentalne (stany poznawcze lub psychologiczne) → know, believe, understand, remember, think=wyrażać opinię (w znaczeniu mimowolnym)
2. Posesywne / relacyjne (posiadanie, przynależność, relacja) → have, own, belong, contain, consist
3. Percepcyjne / zmysłowe Czasowniki te opisują percepcję, a nie działanie zamierzone: → see, hear, smell, taste, feel (w znaczeniu mimowolnym)

† How long did you live in Copenhagen? (rozumie się, że nie mieszkasz już w Kopenhadze.)
† How long have you lived in Copenhagen? (rozumie się aż do dziś. Być może nadal mieszkasz w Kopenhadze — a być może nie.)
† How long have you been living in Copenhage? (rozumie się, że obecnie mieszkasz w Kopenhadze i że pytanie dotyczy wyłącznie tego ostatniego okresu.)

Chociaż może istnieć kilka wyjątków, możesz bezpiecznie zastosować to kryterium do innych języków europejskich, takich jak duński, niemiecki, grecki, hiszpański, francuski, a najprawdopodobniej także do innych.